corda/docs/source/api-contract-constraints.rst

API: Contract Constraints

Note

Before reading this page, you should be familiar with the key concepts of key-concepts-contracts.

Contract constraints

Corda separates verification of states from their definition. Whilst you might have expected the ContractState interface to define a verify method, or perhaps to do verification logic in the constructor, instead it is primarily done by a method on a Contract class. This is because what we're actually checking is the validity of a transaction, which is more than just whether the individual states are internally consistent. The transition between two valid states may be invalid, if the rules of the application are not being respected. For instance, two cash states of $100 and $200 may both be internally valid, but replacing the first with the second isn't allowed unless you're a cash issuer - otherwise you could print money for free.

For a transaction to be valid, the verify function associated with each state must run successfully. However, for this to be secure, it is not sufficient to specify the verify function by name as there may exist multiple different implementations with the same method signature and enclosing class. This normally will happen as applications evolve, but could also happen maliciously as anyone can create a JAR with a class of that name.

Contract constraints solve this problem by allowing a state creator to constrain which verify functions out of the universe of implementations can be used (i.e. the universe is everything that matches the class name and contract constraints restrict this universe to a subset). Constraints are satisfied by attachments (JARs). You are not allowed to attach two JARs that both define the same application due to the no overlap rule. This rule specifies that two attachment JARs may not provide the same file path. If they do, the transaction is considered invalid. Because each state specifies both a constraint over attachments and a Contract class name to use, the specified class must appear in only one attachment.

Note

With the introduction of signature constraints in Corda 4, a new attachments classloader will verify that both signed and unsigned versions of an associated contract jar contain identical classes. This allows for automatic migration of hash-constrained states (created with pre-Corda 4 unsigned contract jars) to signature constrained states when used as outputs in new transactions using signed Corda 4 contract jars.

Recap: A corda transaction transitions input states to output states. Each state is composed of data, the name of the class that verifies the transition(contract), and the contract constraint. The transaction also contains a list of attachments (normal JARs) from where these classes will be loaded. There must be only one JAR containing each contract. The contract constraints are responsible to ensure the attachment JARs are following the rules set by the creators of the input states (in a continuous chain to the issue). This way, we have both valid data and valid code that checks the transition packed into the transaction.

So who picks the attachment to use? It is chosen by the creator of the transaction but has to satisfy the constraints of the input states. This is because any node doing transaction resolution will actually verify the selected attachment against all constraints, so the transaction will only be valid if it passes those checks. For example, when the input state is constrained by the HashAttachmentConstraint, can only attach the JAR with that hash to the transaction.

The transaction creator also gets to pick the constraints used by any output states. When building a transaction, the default constraint on output states is AutomaticPlaceholderConstraint, which means that corda will select the appropriate constraint. Unless specified otherwise, attachment constraints will propagate from input to output states. (The rules are described below) Constraint propagation is also enforced during transaction verification, where for normal transactions (not explicit upgrades, or notary changes), the constraints of the output states are required to "inherit" the constraint of the input states. ( See below for details)

There are two ways of handling upgrades to a smart contract in Corda:

1. Implicit: By allowing multiple implementations of the contract ahead of time, using constraints.
2. Explicit: By creating a special contract upgrade transaction and getting all participants of a state to sign it using the contract upgrade flows.

This article focuses on the first approach. To learn about the second please see upgrading-cordapps.

The advantage of pre-authorising upgrades using constraints is that you don't need the heavyweight process of creating upgrade transactions for every state on the ledger. The disadvantage is that you place more faith in third parties, who could potentially change the app in ways you did not expect or agree with. The advantage of using the explicit upgrade approach is that you can upgrade states regardless of their constraint, including in cases where you didn't anticipate a need to do so. But it requires everyone to sign, requires everyone to manually authorise the upgrade, consumes notary and ledger resources, and is just in general more complex.

Contract/State Agreement

Starting with Corda 4, a ContractState must explicitly indicate which Contract it belongs to. When a transaction is verified, the contract bundled with each state in the transaction must be its "owning" contract, otherwise we cannot guarantee that the transition of the ContractState will be verified against the business rules that should apply to it.

There are two mechanisms for indicating ownership. One is to annotate the ContractState with the BelongsToContract annotation, indicating the Contract class to which it is tied:

@BelongToContract(MyContract.class)
public class MyState implements ContractState {
    // implementation goes here
}

@BelongsToContract(MyContract::class)
data class MyState(val value: Int) : ContractState {
    // implementation goes here
}

The other is to define the ContractState class as an inner class of the Contract class

public class MyContract implements Contract {

    public static class MyState implements ContractState {
        // state implementation goes here
    }

    // contract implementation goes here
}

class MyContract : Contract {
    data class MyState(val value: Int) : ContractState
}

If a ContractState's owning Contract cannot be identified by either of these mechanisms, and the targetVersion of the CorDapp is 4 or greater, then transaction verification will fail with a TransactionRequiredContractUnspecifiedException. If the owning Contract can be identified, but the ContractState has been bundled with a different contract, then transaction verification will fail with a TransactionContractConflictException.

How constraints work

In Corda 4 there are three types of constraint that can be used in production environments: hash, zone whitelist and signature. For development purposes the AlwaysAcceptAttachmentConstraint allows any attachment to be selected.

Hash and zone whitelist constraints were available in Corda 3, with hash constraints being used as default. In Corda 4 the default constraint is the signature constraint if the jar is signed. Otherwise, the default constraint type is either a zone constraint, if the network parameters in effect when the transaction is built contain an entry for that contract class, or a hash constraint if not.

Hash constraints. The behaviour provided by public blockchain systems like Bitcoin and Ethereum is that once data is placed on the ledger, the program that controls it is fixed and cannot be changed. There is no support for upgrades at all. This implements a form of "code is law", assuming you trust the community of that blockchain to not release a new version of the platform that invalidates or changes the meaning of your program.

This is supported by Corda using a hash constraint. This specifies exactly one hash of a CorDapp JAR that contains the contract and states any consuming transaction is allowed to use. Once such a state is created, other nodes will only accept a transaction if it uses that exact JAR file as an attachment. By implication, any bugs in the contract code or state definitions cannot be fixed except by using an explicit upgrade process via ContractUpgradeFlow.

Note

Corda does not support any way to create states that can never be upgraded at all, but the same effect can be obtained by using a hash constraint and then simply refusing to agree to any explicit upgrades. Hash constraints put you in control by requiring an explicit agreement to any upgrade.

Zone constraints. Often a hash constraint will be too restrictive. You do want the ability to upgrade an app, and you don't mind the upgrade taking effect "just in time" when a transaction happens to be required for other business reasons. In this case you can use a zone constraint. This specifies that the network parameters of a compatibility zone (see network-map) is expected to contain a map of class name to hashes of JARs that are allowed to provide that class. The process for upgrading an app then involves asking the zone operator to add the hash of your new JAR to the parameters file, and trigger the network parameters upgrade process. This involves each node operator running a shell command to accept the new parameters file and then restarting the node. Node owners who do not restart their node in time effectively stop being a part of the network.

Signature constraints. These enforce an association between a state and its associated contract JAR which must be signed by a specified identity, via the regular Java jarsigner tool. This is the most flexible type and the smoothest to deploy: no restarts or contract upgrade transactions are needed. When a CorDapp is build using corda-gradle-plugin <cordapp_build_system_signing_cordapp_jar_ref> the JAR is signed by Corda development key by default, an external keystore can be configured or signing can be disabled.

Warning

CorDapps can only use signature constraints when participating in a Corda network using a minimum platform version of 4. An auto downgrade rule applies to signed CorDapps built and tested with Corda 4 but running on a Corda network of a lower version: if the associated contract class is whitelisted in the network parameters then zone constraints are applied, otherwise hash constraints are used.

A TransactionState has a constraint field that represents that state's attachment constraint. When a party constructs a TransactionState, or adds a state using TransactionBuilder.addOutput(ContractState) without specifying the constraint parameter, a default value (AutomaticPlaceholderConstraint) is used. This default will be automatically resolved to a specific HashAttachmentConstraint or a WhitelistedByZoneAttachmentConstraint. This automatic resolution occurs when a TransactionBuilder is converted to a WireTransaction. This reduces the boilerplate that would otherwise be involved.

Finally, an AlwaysAcceptAttachmentConstraint can be used which accepts anything, though this is intended for testing only, and a warning will be shown if used by a contract.

Please note that the AttachmentConstraint interface is marked as @DoNotImplement. You are not allowed to write new constraint types. Only the platform may implement this interface. If you tried, other nodes would not understand your constraint type and your transaction would not verify.

Warning

An AlwaysAccept constraint is effectively the same as disabling security for those states entirely. Nothing stops you using this constraint in production, but that degrades Corda to being effectively a form of distributed messaging with optional contract logic being useful only to catch mistakes, rather than potentially malicious action. If you are deploying an app for which malicious actors aren't in your threat model, using an AlwaysAccept constraint might simplify things operationally.

An example below shows how to construct a TransactionState with an explicitly specified hash constraint from within a flow:

// Constructing a transaction with a custom hash constraint on a state
TransactionBuilder tx = new TransactionBuilder();

Party notaryParty = ... // a notary party

tx.addInputState(...)
tx.addInputState(...)

DummyState contractState = new DummyState();

TransactionState transactionState = new TransactionState(contractState, DummyContract.Companion.getPROGRAMID(), notaryParty, null, HashAttachmentConstraint(myhash));
tx.addOutputState(transactionState);
WireTransaction wtx = tx.toWireTransaction(serviceHub);  // This is where an automatic constraint would be resolved.
LedgerTransaction ltx = wtx.toLedgerTransaction(serviceHub);
ltx.verify(); // Verifies both the attachment constraints and contracts

Contract attachment non-downgrade rule

Contract code is versioned and deployed as an independent JAR that gets imported into a node's database as a contract attachment (either explicitly uploaded via RPC or automatically loaded from disk). When constructing new transaction it is paramount to ensure that the contract version of code associated with new output states is the same or newer than the highest version of any existing input states. This is to prevent the possibility of nodes selecting older, potentially malicious or buggy contract code when creating new states from existing consumed states.

Transactions contain an attachment for each contract. The version of the output states is the version of this contract attachment. See versioning for more details on how these versions are set. These can be seen as the version of the code that instantiated and serialised those classes.

The non-downgrade rule specifies that the version of the code used in the transaction that spends a state needs to be greater than or equal to the highest version of the input states (i.e. spending_version >= creation_version)

The contract attachment non-downgrade rule is enforced in two locations:

1. Transaction building, upon creation of new output states. During this step, the node also selects the latest available attachment (i.e. the contract code with the latest contract class version).
2. Transaction verification, upon resolution of existing transaction chains.

A version number is stored in the manifest information of the enclosing JAR file. This version identifier should be a whole number starting from 1. This information should be set using the Gradle cordapp plugin, or manually, as described in versioning.

Uniqueness requirement Contract and Version for Signature Constraint

CorDapps in Corda 4 may be signed (to use new signature constraints functionality) or unsigned, and versioned. The following controls are enforced for these different types of jars within the attachment store of a node:

• Signed contract JARs must be uniquely versioned per contract class (or group of). At runtime the node will throw a DuplicateContractClassException` exception if this condition is violated.
• Unsigned contract JARs: there should not exist multiple instances of the same contract jar. When a whitelisted JARs is imported and it doesn't contain a version number, the version will be copied from the position (counting from 1) of this JAR in the whilelist. The same JAR can be present in many lists (if it contains many contracts), in such case the version will be equal to the highest position of the JAR in all lists. The new whitelist needs to be distributed to the node before the JAR is imported, otherwise it will receive default version. At run-time the node will warn of duplicates encountered. The most recent version given by insertionDate into the attachment storage will be used upon transaction building/resolution.

Issues when using the HashAttachmentConstraint

When setting up a new network, it is possible to encounter errors when states are issued with the HashAttachmentConstraint, but not all nodes have that same version of the CorDapp installed locally.

In this case, flows will fail with a ContractConstraintRejection, and the failed flow will be sent to the flow hospital. From there it's suspended waiting to be retried on node restart. This gives the node operator the opportunity to recover from those errors, which in the case of constraint violations means adding the right cordapp jar to the cordapps folder.

CorDapps as attachments

CorDapp JARs (see cordapp-overview) that contain classes implementing the Contract interface are automatically loaded into the AttachmentStorage of a node, and made available as ContractAttachments. They are retrievable by hash using AttachmentStorage.openAttachment. These JARs can either be installed on the node or fetched from the network using the FetchAttachmentsFlow.

Note

The obvious way to write a CorDapp is to put all you states, contracts, flows and support code into a single Java module. This will work but it will effectively publish your entire app onto the ledger. That has two problems: (1) it is inefficient, and (2) it means changes to your flows or other parts of the app will be seen by the ledger as a "new app", which may end up requiring essentially unnecessary upgrade procedures. It's better to split your app into multiple modules: one which contains just states, contracts and core data types. And another which contains the rest of the app. See cordapp-structure.

Constraints propagation

As was mentioned above, the TransactionBuilder API gives the CorDapp developer or even malicious node owner the possibility to construct output states with a constraint of his choosing. Also, as listed above, some constraints are more restrictive then others. For example, the HashAttachmentConstraint is the most restrictive, basically reducing the universe of possible attachments to 1 (see migrating from hash constraints in note below), while the AlwaysAcceptAttachmentConstraint allows any attachment to be selected.

For the ledger to remain in a consistent state, the expected behavior is for output state to inherit the constraints of input states. This guarantees that for example, a transaction can't output a state with the AlwaysAcceptAttachmentConstraint when the corresponding input state was the HashAttachmentConstraint. Translated, this means that if this rule is enforced, it ensures that the output state will be spent under similar conditions as it was created.

Before version 4, the constraint propagation logic was expected to be enforced in the contract verify code, as it has access to the entire Transaction.

Starting with version 4 of Corda, the constraint propagation logic has been implemented and enforced directly by the platform, unless disabled using @NoConstraintPropagation - which reverts to the previous behavior.

For Contracts that are not annotated with @NoConstraintPropagation, the platform implements a fairly simple constraint transition policy to ensure security and also allow the possibility to transition to the new SignatureAttachmentConstraint.

Note

Migration from hash to signature constraints is automatic if the transaction building node has a signed version of the original contract jar (used in previous transactions generating hash constrained states). Additionally, it is a requirement that the owner of this signed jar register the java package namespace of the encompassing contract classes with the network parameters. See package_namespace_ownership introduced in Corda 4.

During transaction building the AutomaticPlaceholderConstraint for output states will be resolved and the best contract attachment versions will be selected based on a variety of factors so that the above holds true. If it can't find attachments in storage or there are no possible constraints, the Transaction Builder will fail early.

For example:

• In the simple case, if a MyContract input state is constrained by the HashAttachmentConstraint, then the constraints of all output states of that type will be resolved to the HashAttachmentConstraint with the same hash, and the attachment with that hash will be selected.
• For upgradeable constraints like the WhitelistedByZoneAttachmentConstraint, the output states will inherit the same, and the selected attachment will be the latest version installed on the node.
• A more complex case is when for MyContract, one input state is constrained by the HashAttachmentConstraint, while another state by the WhitelistedByZoneAttachmentConstraint. To respect the rule from above, if the hash of the HashAttachmentConstraint is whitelisted by the network, then the output states will inherit the HashAttachmentConstraint, as it is more restrictive. If the hash was not whitelisted, then the builder will fail as it is unable to select a correct constraint.
• The SignatureAttachmentConstraint is an upgradeable constraint, same as the WhitelistedByZoneAttachmentConstraint. By convention we allow states to transition to the SignatureAttachmentConstraint from the WhitelistedByZoneAttachmentConstraint as long as the Signatures from new constraints are all the jarsigners from the whitelisted attachment. We also allow transitioning of states from HashAttachmentConstraint to SignatureAttachmentConstraint where both the unsigned and signed versions of the associated contract attachment are loaded in a node, and the java package namespace of encompassing contract classes is registered with the network parameters using the same signing key as the signed contract jar.

For Contracts that are annotated with @NoConstraintPropagation, the platform requires that the Transaction Builder specifies an actual constraint for the output states (the AutomaticPlaceholderConstraint can't be used) .

Debugging

If an attachment constraint cannot be resolved, a MissingContractAttachments exception is thrown. There are two common sources of MissingContractAttachments exceptions:

Not setting CorDapp packages in tests

You are running a test and have not specified the CorDapp packages to scan. See the instructions above.

Wrong fully-qualified contract name

You are specifying the fully-qualified name of the contract incorrectly. For example, you've defined MyContract in the package com.mycompany.myapp.contracts, but the fully-qualified contract name you pass to the TransactionBuilder is com.mycompany.myapp.MyContract (instead of com.mycompany.myapp.contracts.MyContract).